Mentor subscriber Dan Lukiv srites: "I have an article that you and fellow teachers might find of practical value with regard to our need to deal with illiteracy and aliteracy."

The complete article is presented here. Please send any comments to Dan at lukivdan@shaw.ca

BIO: Dan Lukiv teaches secondary alternate education to troubled teens in Quesnel, BC. He is also a poet, novelist, and short story and article writer, and an independent educational researcher. His poetry, fiction, and articles have appeared over 1500 times in 16 countries. 

To contact Dan: lukivdan@shaw.ca

School-Wide Literacy

 Dan Lukiv

            As chair of the Committee for School-Wide Literacy--2003/2004 at McNaughton Centre Secondary Alternate School, I have spoken frequently with fellow teachers, youth care workers, our principal, and our acting principal about initiatives to promote literacy (Definition of Literacy, 2003). We hope these initiatives will also de-promote aliteracy (What is Aliteracy?, 2001). These initiatives present tall orders for a student body made up of, in many cases, individuals who rarely do or hardly can read--unless made to by teachers.

            If students are going to want to read, then they need competence that creates positive feelings when they look into reading material (Stipek, 1998), whether into comic books, short stories, poems, novels, plays, or foreign movie subtitles. They need to find pleasure in reading (Ruddell & Unrau, 1994). They need competence and to find pleasure, however, not only in reading, but also in writing. Better writing means better reading (McCarthy & Raphael, 1992; Ruddell & Unrau, 1994). Surprised? Not likely. Perhaps you're also not surprised that teachers who model (New World Translation, 1 Peter 2:21), who avidly read (Forsythe, 2003; and Jobe, 1982) and effectively write; (Spandel & Stiggins, 1997) motivate students to copy the teacher.

            This paper addresses what teachers who read and write--ha!--can do to promote literacy in their classrooms. First I'll recommend ways to encourage students to write, then, after discussing the culture of the classroom, I'll recommend ways to encourage students to read. Application of the ideas herein should promote literacy and de-promote aliteracy.

Writing in the Classroom

             I have completed two hermeneutic phenomenological studies (hereafter, Study I and Study II) about events in elementary and high school that encouraged two individuals to take up creative writing seriously, becoming successful Canadian poets (2002b or 2003; and 2004). The themes generated from these studies remain specific to these two people and their experiences, but if certain events encouraged these information-rich participants (Barnett, 2002), then in terms of extrapolation (Patton, 1987), these events may encourage others to consider writing as a worthwhile activity.

            Study I explored the experiences of Arthur (pseudonym, in the name of confidentiality), Study II the experiences of Thomas (similarly, a pseudonym). Eight themes emerged from Study I, and one from Study II. Arthur’s themes are: (1) Events in school that promoted the joy and wonder of silent reading of poetry and fiction encouraged Arthur to become a creative writer. (2) Events that promoted the joy and wonder of listening to poetry and fiction fluently read aloud and of listening to songs encouraged him. (3) Events that promoted the wonder of uninterrupted language experiences and (4) that promoted the intrigue and wonder of flights of imagination fuelled by the connotative and imagistic value of words encouraged him. (5) Events that promoted the excitement of verbally punning and joking and of informing others about what he had read and learned encouraged him, and (6) so did events that promoted the joy and exhilarating freedom of writing down his thoughts and feelings based on poetry and fiction read and having those thoughts and feelings valued by teachers. (7) Events that promoted the exhilarating freedom of choice of reading material and (8) that promoted the satisfaction and excitement of receiving sound direction about how to write well from compassionate teachers encouraged Arthur to become a creative writer. Words in these themes such as “joy,” “wonder,” “intrigue,” “excitement,” “exhilarating,” and “satisfaction” describe feelings Arthur had. I chose those words through my analysis and interpretation of the data and through repeated participant review that established their validity and the study's reliability (McMillan & Schumacher, 1997; van Manen, 1990).

            These themes led me to make recommendations for teachers who want to promote a love for writing in their classrooms.

Recommendations Based on Study I

            Theme One--Silent Reading of Poetry and Fiction. Teachers who offer their students a variety of silent reading experiences through reading programs, literature programs, access to class libraries, visits to school libraries, visits to municipal or otherwise public libraries, visits to book fairs, and creative book displays may be encouraging some students to become creative writers. Silent reading opportunities encouraged Arthur. They encouraged me (2002c). The Ministry lists a vast number of resources for silent reading in each of its three guides (1996a, pp. B-9 to B-126; 1996b, pp. B-9 to B-122; 1996c, B-9 to B-103).   

            Theme Two--Listening to Poetry and Fiction Read Aloud and Listening to Songs. The Ministry’s (1996a, 1996b, 1996c) three guides do not encourage language arts teachers to consider the benefits of singsongs and do not address the benefits of teachers reading to students. But the International Reading Association tells teachers to “provide opportunities for students...to be read to each school day” (Supporting Young Adolescents’ Literacy Learning, 2002; also see, e.g., Cramer & Castle, 1994; Goodman, Goodman, & Flores, 1979; and Koltin, n.d.). Teachers who provide, especially in the primary grades, class singsongs, and teachers who provide quality oral reading of poetry and fiction, may be encouraging some students to become creative writers. These provisions encouraged Arthur. Jack Hodgins (1993) relates that one teacher reading fine fiction aloud encouraged him to take up fiction writing. I had many similar experiences (Lukiv, 2002c).

            Theme Three--Uninterrupted Language Experiences. Teachers who allow students blocks of time, without interrupting their sensory perceptions or their flights of fancy with questions or other assignments, to enjoy language experiences such as videos, free reading time, read-aloud poetry and fiction, and professionally-performed plays may be encouraging some students to become creative writers. The Ministry (1996a, 1996b, 1996c) refers to videos of movies and plays, novels, short story and poetry collections, scripts, and electronic media that could serve as content for uninterrupted language experiences.

            Theme Four--Flights of Imagination. Teachers who allow students reasonable opportunities to daydream; who openly value flights of imagination, or “lateral-thinking ecstasy” (Lukiv, 2001, Chapter 7, p. 17); who display passionate interest in the connotative and imagistic “life” of words; and who provide texts rich in connotative and imagistic words or phrases may be encouraging some students to become creative writers. Many of The Ministry’s (1996a, 1996b, 1996c) resources just referred to in "Theme Three--Uninterrupted Language Experiences" could serve as connotative and imagistic fuel for students’ imaginations.

            Theme Five--Verbally Punning and Joking and Informing Others. Teachers who allow, within the limits of reason, students in class to pun and joke and verbally inform others about what they have learned may be encouraging some of them to become creative writers. These teachers provide a classroom stage on which students “manipulate language for...expression” (The Ministry, 1996a, 1996b, 1996c, p. 3), which refers precisely to what writers do with language.

            Theme Six--The Freedom of Writing Down Thoughts and Having Those Thoughts Valued. Teachers who passionately discuss with their students thoughts and feelings based on poetry and fiction texts read in class, and who openly value students’ attempts to write down those thoughts and feelings may be encouraging some of them to become creative writers. The Ministry (1996a, 1996b, 1996c) speaks frequently about the benefits and pleasures of writing and the need for teachers to value their students’ efforts.

            I publish a literary journal--CHALLENGER international--that features poetry and fiction by my students as a means to promote "opportunities for writing" (McCarthy & Raphael, 1992, p. 22). My experience tells me that students deeply appreciate such validation of their writing efforts. Others agree with my observations. Tina Quinn, former Associate Principal of Secondary Alternate Programs in Quesnel, BC, once wrote to me: "I have just finished reading the latest edition of CHALLENGER international. Great stuff!...I really appreciated it, but the big winners are the kids. I know kids feel validated when they see their own work in print."

            In different words, students have expressed similar thoughts: "CHALLENGER international is an excellent vehicle for students to express themselves. Their views on life through stories and poetry show others how they think and feel. Another positive example from students expressing themselves through writing is that it could relieve tension caused from their stress. We all look different, but most of the time we are all the same on the inside, and CHALLENGER international helps us see that" (Kathy Olsen, McNaughton Centre Secondary Alternate School graduate). Vacca and Linek (1992) would endorse the journal as a display of student writing far beyond just the teacher as the audience (Lukiv, 1996). 

            Theme Seven--The Freedom of Choice of Reading Material. Teachers who encourage students to explore literature through freedom of choice and through easy access to literature may be encouraging some of them to become creative writers. I refer to many avenues in the subsection “Theme One--Silent Reading of Poetry and Fiction” that teachers could use to provide literary freedom of choice, and The Ministry (1996a, 1996b, 1996c) lists a great library of literary resources that could also provide that freedom. I refer to further reading material that students could provide, through their own choices, in "Recommendation Six," found in the "Recommendations With Regard to Reading" section. 

            Theme Eight--Sound Direction From Compassionate Teachers. Teachers, notably compassionate, who provide students sound direction about how to write well may be encouraging some of them to become creative writers. The feedback these teachers provide helps students do the very work of writing: “manipulat[ing] language for...expression" (The Ministry, 1996a, 1996b, 1996c, p. 3).

Study II

            Few events in school encouraged Thomas to become a creative writer, as opposed to the many that encouraged Arthur. From the study, I discovered one essential theme for Thomas. He did find frustration in the study's not holistically addressing sociological, emotional, economic, psychological, spiritual, genetic, physical and other variables inside and outside school that could influence or encourage people to pursue a path, like creative writing, in life; however, he did agree that the one essential theme from this study rings true. That single, broad theme reads as follows: One teacher (English 9, 10, and 11) who demanded the best of Thomas as a human being, and who more than valued, but loved, saw Thomas as a unique person, encouraged him to be the best that he could be, and since he had always, going back as far he can remember, wanted to write, that encouragement translated into his wanting to be the best writer that he could be. The fact that she was a high school English teacher is not relevant. If she had been a math teacher, he feels the effect would have been the same. Her interest in him, her demanding nature, and her more than just valuing Thomas as a person made such a deep impression on him that to this day his memories of her classes remain a source of joy and motivation.

            That theme led me to make recommendations for teachers who want to promote a love for writing in their classrooms.

Recommendations Based on Study II

            This study gives Language Arts teachers direction. If I break the essential theme from this study into its parts, the direction looks like this (confirmed through participant review with Thomas):

            1. Demand, from a humanistic point of view, the best from students;

            2. Value, love, see each student as sublimely unique;

            3. Encourage students to be the best that they can be, no matter what their

            gifts or deficits are;

            (Notice the focus on demand in "1" and encourage in "3.")

            4. Application of "1," "2," and "3" may encourage a student with creative

            writing ability or interest to become a poet, novelist, or dramatist;

            [5. Application of "1," "2," and "3" may encourage a student with any ability

            or interest to develop that ability or pursue that interest; and

            6. Application of "1," "2," and "3" may encourage students to develop

            positive, lifelong-learning habits.]

            Recommendations from Studies I and II should help teachers promote a love for writing in at least some students, which should translate into their wanting to write, and into their progress as readers (McCarthy & Raphael, 1992; Ruddell & Unrau, 1994). Further help comes from direction about classroom climate, or the culture of the classroom.

The Culture of the Clas sroom

            Connie and Harold Rosen “make the point very strongly that it is the teacher’s acceptance of each child as an individual that underlies...[student] success” (The Rosens, as quoted in Sainsbury, 1992, p. 123). That acceptance creates cultural force in the classroom. That force encourages “students...to help one another without put-downs, harmful competition, or unnecessary criticism. They should applaud the writing [and other] efforts that individuals choose to share” (Vacca & Linek, 1992, p. 157).

            Given the context of the classroom culture I try to establish, you can understand my agreement with Ruddell and Unrau: Teachers should be “warm, caring, and flexible, while having high expectations of themselves and their students. Furthermore, they are concerned about their students as individuals in the social context [culture] of the classroom” (1994, p. 1023). For teachers to focus on students as individuals seems fundamental. We live in a multicultural extravaganza, in diverse continents, here on earth. Students “have diverse characteristics, such as race or ethnicity, language, income levels, gender, and special needs, and in unique combinations. In addition to their previous learning in and out of school, they bring unique knowledge, strategies, and attitudes to [the] classroom” (Allan & Miller, 2000, p. 10). That diversity affects language in the classroom. Because “language learning is cultural learning” (Heath, 1986, p. 85), the language children and teacher bring to the classroom affects classroom culture. Here is a perfect example:

            A brand-new black teacher is delivering her first reading lesson to a group of first-grade students in inner-city Philadelphia. She has almost memorized the entire basal-provided lesson dialogue while practicing in front of a mirror the night before.

                        “Good morning, boys and girls. Today we’re going to read a story about

            where we live--in the city.”

                        A small brown hand rises.

                        “Yes, Marti.”

                        Marti and his teacher are special friends, for she was a kindergartner in the

            informal classroom where her new teacher-student taught.

“Teacher, how come you talkin’ like a white person? You talkin’ just like my momma talk when she get on the phone!”

I was that first-year teacher many years ago, and Marti was among the first to teach me the role of language diversity in the classroom. Marti let me know that children--even young children--are often aware of the different codes we all use in our everyday lives. (Delpit, 1990, p. 247)

            How do we deal with language diversity as part of the classroom culture? Do we tell students that standard English is the only English, or imply by words and gestures that all other forms of English are inferior? I know that “the linguistic form a student brings to school is intimately connected with loved ones, community, and personal identity. To suggest that this form is ‘wrong’...is to suggest that something is wrong with the student and his or her family” (Delpit, 1990, p. 251). Would that be the mark of a “warm, caring, and flexible” teacher?

            I don’t think so.

            Although it’s true that “students who do not have access to the politically popular dialect form in this country, i.e., standard English, are less likely to succeed economically than their peers who do” (Delpit, 1990, p. 251), a standard versus non-standard reconciliation exists. “Martha Demientieff, a native Alaskan teacher of Athabaskan Indian middle school students, finds that her students, who live in a small, isolated village, are not fully aware that there are different codes of English” (p. 251). What does she do about that? She validates the non-standard while informing students about the standard.

            About those who speak only standard English, she tells her students:

We have to feel a little sorry for them because they have only one way to talk. We’re going to learn two ways to say things. Isn’t that better? One way will be our Heritage way. The other will be Formal English. Then, when we go to get jobs, we’ll be able to talk like those people who only know and can only really listen to one way. (Martha Demientieff cited in Delpit, 1990, p. 252).        

            I try to approach cultural diversity in the classroom similarly, thereby validating who students are, and who their families are, and thereby infusing our classroom culture with a celebration of diversity. Instead of saying, “Darlene, you really need to fix up some of these words. They’re slang, you know,” I’d much rather say, “Darlene, this story has adventure, and it’s even kind of scary. The other kids will love reading it.” I’d rather encourage than criticize. I’ll address the subject of standard versus non-standard English with the class in the same spirit and logic as Martha Demientieff’s words. But I won’t follow the public road of criticism of non-standard English found in this example:

A black second grader wrote a story which she volunteered to share with the class.

She began: “Once upon a time there was an old lady, and this old lady ain’t had no sense....” At this point the teacher interrupted her. “Doris, that sounds like it’s going to be a wonderful story, but can you put the beginning in standard English?”

Doris looked at her paper for a moment, and then proffered, “There was

an old lady who didn’t have any sense.” She paused, put her hand on her hip, and said emphatically, “But this old lady ain’t had no sense!” (Delpit, 1990, p. 259)   

I would have simply enjoyed Doris’ story, enjoyed the diversity of language.

            But I want my classroom’s culture to celebrate more than diversity in language; I want it to celebrate different styles of storytelling. Consider the following by Gail Martin, a teacher-researcher who is speaking about Arapaho students:

One of our major concerns was that many of the stories children wrote didn’t seem to “go anywhere.” The stories just ambled along with no definite start or finish, no climaxes or conclusions. I decided to ask Pius Moss [the school elder] about these stories, since he is a master Arapaho storyteller...[He] explained that Arapaho stories...[are] told in what we might call serial form, continued night after night....My colleagues and I...decided that we would encourage our students to choose whichever type of story they wished to write. (Gail Martin in Delpit, 1990, pp. 259-260)

Just as one shows wisdom in not “replying to a matter before...hear[ing it]” (New World Translation, Proverbs 18:13), Gail Martin showed wisdom in not simply rejecting the Arapaho stories, but in gathering relevant information about them. Simply put, classroom culture should make room for cultural forces kids bring to school. Len Vygotsky would have agreed. “Vygotsky describes...learning as occurring first on an interpsychological plane--or between people[, which certainly includes people at home]--and then on an intrapsychological plane--within the individual” (McCarthey & Raphael, 1992, p. 17). Gail didn’t criticize the types of stories Arapaho children wrote; she didn’t ignore that “through speech and social interaction[, which includes the speech and social interaction children experience outside the classroom,]...the learner acquires new abilities [and insights]” (p. 17).

            The language of that last sentence labels Vygotsky, in some ways, a social-constructivist. In the words of McCarthey and Raphael:

            Social-constructivist theory accounts for variations among cultures in language

            practices and in the ways children learn to read and write in different settings. The

theory highlights the role of social context and brings our attention to the need to

be sensitive to the values and practices of different cultural groups in schools.

(McCarthey & Raphael, 1992, p. 20)

That said, I salute Gail Martin. And that said, I encourage teachers to establish a classroom culture that celebrates and encompasses the mini- and macro-cultures that students define. The culturally sensitive teacher, then, will embrace the different forms of writing that students, out of their heritage, produce, and will embrace the different genres or styles of reading material that students bring to the classroom to share or personally enjoy.

Reading in the Classroom  

            The trend of students reading less and less for fun, as they progress through the public school system (Ruddell & Unrau, 1994; and Forsythe, 2003), presents teachers with a great challenge. Forsythe refers to numerous researchers who make this point (Gallik, 1999; Guthrie & Wigfield, 1997, 2000; Shapiro & Whitney, 1997; Wigfield, 1997; and Worthy, 1996). She mentions (2003) that "Smith (1988; cited in McKenna & Kear, 1990) observed that 'the emotional response to reading…is the primary reason most readers read, and probably the primary reason most nonreaders do not read' (p. 626)" (p. 3).

            Consequences for students who do not learn to read well look grim. Forsythe (2003) explains:

            Anderson, Hiebert, Scott, and Wilkinson, (cited in Gallik, 1999) in their

            Report of the Commission on Reading in the United States argued that

            'without the ability to read well, opportunities for personal fulfilment and

            job success will inevitably be lost' (Introduction section, ¶ 3).  Lippe and

            Weber (1996) claim 'there is no skill more basic to success than the ability

            to read.…Reading is the foundation for children’s success in school as

            well as throughout life' (p. 8). (p. 3)

            Another problem, besides illiteracy or poor reading skills, also faces educators. Aliteracy. Forsythe reminds us that "students who are capable of reading are choosing not to read and are beginning a cycle of aliteracy (Arthur, 1995), a reality which is a growing concern in our society" (2003, p. 7). But, she counters, "Guthrie and Wigfield (2000) argue that with a positive attitude towards reading, the likelihood exists that students will read for pleasure during their free time" (2003, p. 9).

            I, as chair of McNaughton Centre's Committee for School-Wide Literacy, invited Wendy Forsythe to visit our staff. As a group, we discussed her research, and her recommendations for promoting reading as a worthwhile activity for the sake of pleasure and learning to read better. She shared our concerns for young students who don't view reading as worthwhile, noting that her study (2003) revealed recreational reading for her sample of grade four to seven students ranked last out of five choices. In view of the axiom that practise improves ability, during our discussions we came up with recommendations designed to counteract trends towards illiteracy and aliteracy.

Recommendations With Regard to Reading

            As a staff we decided to do pre- and post-testing of students doing English courses to determine if methods based on our recommendations were actually helping students become better readers. We used the Pearson Education Canada Reading Assessment (grades two to eight) for students in grades eight to ten, and the Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test (Brown, Levels G and H) for students in grades 11 and 12.  Our action research point of view (Decker & Leggo, 2003: Dick, 1999; and Dick, 2000) will provide us with some data about the sensibility of the methods we employ. Our recommendations serve as a theoretical premise that coincides with Leggo's (1997) assertion that "practice and theory need to ride in tandem, each supporting and complementing the other" (p. 11). Of course maturation (McMillan & Schumacher, 1997) might account for some gains in reading ability as students' minds mature, but overall, if students typically have not read much of anything for years and have reading abilities way below their normative potential, then teachers may reasonably attribute reading gains to methods.

            I realize that teacher effects, classroom effects, what-student-sits-near-what-student effects, and other effects may influence the degree of success of any method to improve students' reading ability and attitudes towards reading. Really, behaviour (specifically, learning objectives) is a function of what? Robin Barrow begins to show how complex the answer can be: “[Learning is related to the teacher’s mode of] instruction, [to his] sarcasm, precision, discussion-groups, free and easy classes, disciplined material, disciplined demands on behaviour, humour, kindness, appearance, age, compassion, fear,...[and to factors such as] Henry on his own, Henry in the company of Jane,...in the context of a school like this, a school like that, parents of one sort, headmasters of another” (1981, p. 190). Let’s not stop there. “The overbearing manner of a teacher may itself add a new dimension of content to whatever is being taught by making it seem objectionable. An authoritative type of instruction may add a further lesson and have consequences that are distinct from, say, a discussion group in the same topic” (p. 190).

            Variables. That’s what Barrow is spinning, and these variables can make testing one method of instruction over another invalid. A researcher might think he is testing a method (a variable) when in fact he is unwittingly testing a plethora of variables that are muddying up his work. For example, “different ages and different personalities amongst students may respond in different ways to different styles and techniques of teaching.” Also, “different teachers because of their personal idiosyncrasies, strengths and weaknesses may be better employed using different approaches” (Barrow, 1981, p. 191). I’m my own example: I disliked the formalistic teaching methods of my grade two teacher (Mrs. M----) and my grade three teacher (Miss M--------), but I worked much, much, much harder in Miss M--------’s class, largely because she, unlike her grumpy-looking colleague, often flashed a pretty smile my way. I would have climbed Mount Everest for her! In short, education research that treats students as black boxes--alter the independent variable, measure the dependant one (Thompson, 1979)--has received plenty of criticism with respect to a simplified view of the many variables at work (Barrow, 1981; and Thompson, 1979) that influence behaviour in any one person at any one time, and also with respect to inappropriate statistical analyses (Onwuegbuzie & Daniel, 2003).

            But as a staff, we are not testing one method over another. We are simply presenting recommendations that teachers may use to turn into methods. Teachers will apply recommendations that fit best with their personalities, experience, and zest for adventure. These recommendations are a result of our discussions with Wendy Forsythe, our discussions in our literacy committee and at growth plan staff meetings, our experiences as teachers, and our readings as professionals.

            Recommendation One. A school library. Students should have free access to a library that contains a variety of reading materials that appeal to the poorest to the most advanced readers. Those materials may include comics, special interest magazines, and short stories, poetry, and novels. Forsythe (2003) mentions that "Worthy (1996) concludes that 'making interesting materials available for free reading may encourage otherwise reluctant readers to read' (p. 7)" (p. 41). The Ministry (1996a, 1996b, 1996c) lists many resources that teachers and administrators might consider buying for the library.

            Additionally, a survey of high school, elementary school, and public librarians in the Quesnel area could help teachers compile lists of reading material experience has told these librarians are the most popular. As Forsythe (2003) says,

            Research recommends students’ choices of reading material may not match

            with what is currently available within our classrooms and school library. 

            Teachers and parents need to continue to provide students with

            opportunities to get lost in the world of reading, whether in the pages of

            a book, magazine, newspaper, or, possibly, on the Internet. (p. 44)

The point remains, students need a variety of texts that they feel motivated to actually  consider reading.

            Recommendation Two. Class libraries. The same stated under "Recommendation One" applies here, in terms of providing an inviting inventory of reading material for students throughout the range of reading abilities.

            Recommendation Three. Model reading for students (Jobe, 1982). Teachers should

            consider modelling reading during their sustained silent reading time and

            maintaining their commitment to it throughout the course of their weekly

            schedule....Modelling positive attitudes toward reading is...important

            across a wide range of members of our society, including modelling done

            by males, sports figures, pop stars, and representatives of various minority

            groups in order to positively influence children.  This study has implications

            for classroom teachers and teacher-librarians in terms of materials and

            modelling.  With regularly scheduled class time with students and access to

            a myriad of materials..., offer opportunities to expose children to a variety

            of reading experiences. (Forsythe, 2003, p. 46)   

Students who see their teachers as readers may see themselves as the same.

            Recommendation Four. Students need to consider reading from a metacogitive point of view. What skills do they apply to de-code words, to spell words, to consider context clues, to look for inferences? Allan and Miller (2000) discuss students' need to consider their own methods to read words and find understanding of text. And who would argue that

            efficient word recognition and spelling are critical to the higher order cognitive

            processes of  comprehension and composition[?] Stated simply, if children are

            having trouble reading and writing individual words, it is likely that they will also

            encounter difficulty in thinking about what they are reading and writing. (Tunmer,

            1991, p. 105).

Do we ask students to explain to us what their problems are when they read, so that we can provide them with methods to overcome or deal with these problems, enabling them to be metacogitively aware? In short, teachers "will want to [provide] strategies...[that] can help [students] learn better" (Allan & Miller, 2000, p. 8). 

            We might share our methods for understanding what we read to students. For example, if I want to truly remember or understand what I read, I employ my imagination to make the scene, or even the concept, as memorable and understandable as possible. If you are an avid reader, I suspect you do likewise. Metacognition. I could call it imaginative visualizing. Why not encourage our students to try it?

            In the sense that I have been speaking, imagination could be called a literacy strategy that helps "students learn content....Less successful students do not use effective strategies and usually are unaware that strategies even exist" (Allan & Miller, 2000, p. 8). Understandably, "strategic learners are conscious of what they know, how they learn, what tasks require, and how they are progressing. Educators call this consciousness--metacognitive awareness, or thinking about thinking" (p. 14).

              Recommendation Five. Create a climate in the classroom that promotes self-worth. Ruddell and Unrau (1994) state "our extension of Covington’s self-worth theory to reading [and writing] predicts that students who have high self-esteem...are more likely to engage in learning to read [and write] and in self-directed reading [and writing]" (p. 1004). The teacher needs to remove competition that inflames feelings of insecurity for poor readers who are well aware that some peers read material more complex than they do. Forsythe comments:

            Guthrie and Wigfield (2000) argue that as students age, their perceptions

            become more tied to their performance, as they begin to understand that

            they may not be as capable as others. Guthrie and Wigfield (2000) also

            point out a possible change in these grades in instructional practices,

            which may focus on social comparison and increased competition.  [Guthrie,

            Ng, and Sweet] (1998) state that as students age they become more aware

            of their abilities; therefore the older they are, the more aware they are of

            not being as competent as others at the skill of reading. (2003, p. 38)

Many educators argue that non-competitive classrooms promote student self-esteem (Gatto, 1992; Kohn, 1996; Lukiv, 2002a; and Maina, 1997).       

                    Recommendation Six. Offer students choices (Glasser, 1977; Kellough & Kellough, 1999; and Lukiv, Chapter 11, 2001). They may not enjoy some of the poems or stories assigned; they may feel far more intrinsically motivated (Stipek, 1998) if they can choose some of their own reading material. They may wish to bring in material that relates to their lives culturally (Delpit, 1990; Heath, 1986; Ruddell & Unrau, 1994; and Sainsbury, 1992).

            Choices can also relate to assignments. At times, students find teacher-generated assignments irrelevant to their experiences (Pelletier, 1982). Offer students opportunities to establish relevance with assignments such as, "What did that story (or poem or novel) teach you about life?" My experience: Students generally rise to these opportunities to express what they read in terms of what it means personally.

*

            These six recommendations should promote daily reading. Forsythe tells us that

             Gardiner (2001), a high school teacher, promotes daily sustained silent

            reading.  Arthur (1995, as cited in Gardiner, 2001) found several

            studies that correlated daily reading opportunities with improved

            reading attitudes.  He goes on to highlight other research

            which shows improvements not only in attitude but also in

            comprehension, spelling, and vocabulary in students who read on a

            daily basis. (2003, pp. 40-41)

These six recommendations work in harmony with her comments that

            Worthy (1996) concludes that 'making interesting materials available for

            free reading may encourage otherwise reluctant readers to read' (p. 7). 

            [Teachers need to] provide[ ] a range of levels of materials for their

            students, which [would] indicate[ ] a clear sensitivity towards various

            reading levels within their classroom[s]. (2003).

Conclusion

            Forsythe's (2003) Master of Education research provides me with an axiomatic quote: "Practice leads to proficiency which leads to pleasure thereby increasing the desire to read” (Lippe & Weber, 1996, p.18)" (p. 10). I hope the recommendations herein this paper regarding encouraging students to write and read will not only promote literacy and de-promote aliteracy, but will also promote life-long reading habits that will enrich the lives of our graduates for many, many years.       

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